The Rise of Nationalism in Europe Class 10 History Chapter 1 Notes

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The Rise of Nationalism in Europe Class 10 History Chapter 1 Notes

• In 1848, French artist Frédéric Sorrieu created four prints visualizing his dream of a world of ‘democratic and social Republics’.
• The first print depicts people of Europe and America of all ages and social classes, marching and paying homage to the statue of Liberty.
• Liberty is personified as a female figure holding the torch of Enlightenment and the Charter of the Rights of Man.
• The foreground shows the shattered symbols of absolutist institutions.
• The peoples of the world are shown as distinct nations with their flags and national costumes.
• The United States and Switzerland, already nation-states, lead the procession.
• France follows, identifiable by the revolutionary tricolour, just reaching the statue.
• The German peoples, not yet a united nation, carry the black, red, and gold flag, symbolizing hopes for unification and democracy.
• Following them are peoples of Austria, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary, and Russia.
• Christ, saints, and angels from the heavens symbolize fraternity among nations.
• In the nineteenth century, nationalism emerged as a force causing significant political and mental changes in Europe.
• These changes led to the emergence of nation-states, replacing multi-national dynastic empires.
• A nation-state was defined by a centralised power with sovereign control and a common identity among its citizens.
• This sense of common identity and shared history was forged through struggles and actions of leaders and common people.
• Absolutist: A government or system with no restraints on the power exercised, typically referring to a centralized, militarized, and repressive form of monarchical government.
• Utopian: A vision of an ideal society that is unlikely to actually exist.
• Plebiscite: A direct vote by which all the people of a region are asked to accept or reject a proposal.

The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation

• The first clear expression of nationalism emerged with the French Revolution in 1789.
• France was a full-fledged territorial state under an absolute monarch in 1789.
• The French Revolution brought political and constitutional changes, transferring sovereignty from the monarchy to the citizens.
• The revolution declared that the people would now constitute the nation and shape its destiny.
• The French revolutionaries introduced measures to create a collective identity among the French people.
• The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized a united community with equal rights under a constitution.
• A new French flag, the tricolour, replaced the former royal standard.
• The Estates General was elected by active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
• New hymns, oaths, and commemorations were made in the name of the nation.
• A centralized administrative system with uniform laws for all citizens was established.
• Internal customs duties were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
• Regional dialects were discouraged in favor of standard French.
• Revolutionaries declared it the mission of the French nation to liberate European peoples from despotism.
• News of the French Revolution inspired the formation of Jacobin clubs in Europe, preparing for French armies’ expansion.
• Napoleon introduced reforms in conquered territories, promoting rational and efficient administration.
• The Napoleonic Code of 1804 abolished privileges based on birth, established equality before the law, and secured property rights.
• Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished feudal systems, and improved transport and communication in conquered regions.
• Local reactions to French rule were mixed, initially welcoming but later hostile due to increased taxation, censorship, and forced conscription.

The Making of Nationalism in Europe

• In mid-eighteenth-century Europe, there were no nation-states as we know them today.
• Regions such as Germany, Italy, and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies, and cantons with autonomous rulers.
• Eastern and Central Europe were under autocratic monarchies with diverse populations who did not share a collective identity or common culture.
• People often spoke different languages and belonged to different ethnic groups.
• The Habsburg Empire, ruling Austria-Hungary, was a patchwork of diverse regions and peoples.
• The empire included German-speaking Alpine regions, Italian-speaking provinces Lombardy and Venetia, and Hungarian regions with both Magyar and various dialects speakers.
• Galicia’s aristocracy spoke Polish, while numerous peasant groups like Bohemians, Slovaks, Slovenes, Croats, and Roumans lived within the empire.
• These differences hindered political unity, with the only common tie being allegiance to the emperor.

The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class

• The landed aristocracy was the dominant social and political class in Europe, united by a common lifestyle across regions.
• They owned estates in the countryside and town-houses, spoke French in diplomacy and high society, and were connected by marriage ties.
• Despite their power, the aristocracy was a numerically small group.
• The majority of the population consisted of peasants.
• In Western Europe, land was mainly farmed by tenants and small owners, whereas Eastern and Central Europe had vast estates worked by serfs.
• Industrial production and trade growth in Western and parts of Central Europe led to town growth and the emergence of commercial classes focused on market production.
• Industrialization started in England in the late 18th century and spread to France and parts of the German states in the 19th century.
• New social groups emerged: working-class populations and middle classes of industrialists, businessmen, and professionals.
• In Central and Eastern Europe, these groups were smaller in number until the late 19th century.
• Ideas of national unity and the abolition of aristocratic privileges gained popularity among the educated, liberal middle classes.

What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for?

• Ideas of national unity in early-nineteenth-century Europe were closely linked to the ideology of liberalism.
• Liberalism, derived from the Latin “liber” meaning free, stood for individual freedom and equality before the law for the new middle classes.
• Politically, liberalism emphasized government by consent, ending autocracy and clerical privileges, and establishing constitutions and representative governments.
• Nineteenth-century liberals stressed the inviolability of private property.
• Equality before the law did not mean universal suffrage; voting rights were typically limited to property-owning men, excluding women and non-property-owning men.
• The Napoleonic Code limited suffrage and reduced women’s legal status, leading to opposition movements for equal political rights by women and non-propertied men.
• Economically, liberalism advocated for free markets and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on goods and capital movement.
• In the German-speaking regions, Napoleon’s administrative measures created a confederation of 39 states, each with its own currency and measures, complicating trade.
• The zollverein, a customs union formed in 1834 by Prussia and joined by most German states, abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies, facilitating economic exchange.
• The creation of railways further stimulated mobility and economic interests, strengthening national unification and economic nationalism.

A New Conservatism after 1815

• Following Napoleon’s defeat in 1815, European governments embraced conservatism.
• Conservatives aimed to preserve traditional institutions such as the monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property, and the family.
• Conservatives did not seek a return to pre-revolutionary society but believed modernisation could strengthen traditional institutions.
• They supported a modern army, efficient bureaucracy, dynamic economy, and the abolition of feudalism and serfdom to bolster autocratic monarchies.
• In 1815, European powers (Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria) met at the Congress of Vienna, hosted by Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich, to settle European affairs post-Napoleon.
• The Treaty of Vienna aimed to undo changes from the Napoleonic wars: the Bourbon dynasty was restored, France lost annexed territories, and buffer states were established around France.
• The kingdom of the Netherlands was created in the north, Genoa was added to Piedmont in the south, Prussia gained new western territories, and Austria gained control of northern Italy.
• The German confederation of 39 states was retained, Russia received part of Poland, and Prussia received part of Saxony.
• The goal was to restore overthrown monarchies and establish a new conservative order in Europe.
• Conservative regimes were autocratic, intolerant of criticism and dissent, and imposed censorship to control the press and expression.
• Despite this, the memory of the French Revolution inspired liberals, who championed freedom of the press against the conservative order.

The Revolutionaries

• After 1815, fear of repression drove many liberal-nationalists underground, leading to the formation of secret societies to train revolutionaries and spread their ideas.
• Being revolutionary meant opposing the monarchical forms established after the Vienna Congress and fighting for liberty and freedom.
• Revolutionaries believed that creating nation-states was essential for achieving freedom.
• Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Mazzini was a prominent figure in this movement.
• Born in Genoa in 1805, Mazzini joined the secret society Carbonari and was exiled in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria.
• Mazzini founded two more secret societies: Young Italy in Marseilles and Young Europe in Berne, attracting like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy, and the German states.
• Mazzini believed nations were intended by God to be the natural units of mankind, advocating for a unified Italian republic as the basis for Italian liberty.
• His vision inspired the establishment of secret societies in Germany, France, Switzerland, and Poland.
• Mazzini’s opposition to monarchy and vision of democratic republics alarmed conservatives, with Metternich calling him “the most dangerous enemy of our social order.”

The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848

• Conservative regimes in Europe faced challenges as liberalism and nationalism became associated with revolutions.
• Revolutions erupted in regions like the Italian and German states, Ottoman Empire provinces, Ireland, and Poland, led by educated middle-class liberal-nationalists.
• The July 1830 revolution in France overthrew the Bourbon kings, establishing a constitutional monarchy under Louis Philippe.
• This event triggered uprisings in Brussels, leading to Belgium’s separation from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
• The Greek War of Independence from the Ottoman Empire, starting in 1821, galvanized nationalist sentiments across Europe.
• Greek nationalists received support from exiled Greeks and sympathizers in Western Europe, who admired ancient Greek culture.
• Poets and artists portrayed Greece as the cradle of European civilization, rallying public support for its independence struggle.
• Lord Byron raised funds and fought in Greece, symbolizing Western support until his death in 1824.
• The Treaty of Constantinople in 1832 formally recognized Greece as an independent nation.

The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling

• Nationalism developed not only through wars and territorial expansion but also through cultural expressions such as art, poetry, stories, and music.
• Romanticism, a cultural movement, emphasized emotions, intuition, and mystical feelings over reason and science, aiming to create a shared collective heritage for nations.
• German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder promoted the idea of discovering true German culture among the common people (das volk) through folk songs, poetry, and dances.
• Collecting and recording folk culture was crucial for nation-building, popularizing the true spirit of the nation (volksgeist).
• Emphasis on vernacular language and local folklore aimed to revive ancient national spirit and spread nationalist messages to illiterate audiences.
• In Poland, despite partition and loss of independence, national feelings were kept alive through music, language, and cultural symbols like the polonaise and mazurka.
• Language played a crucial role in developing nationalist sentiments; Russian occupation forced Polish language out of schools, prompting armed rebellion in 1831.
• Polish clergy used language as a weapon of national resistance, leading to repression by Russian authorities who punished priests and bishops for refusing to preach in Russian.
• The use of Polish became a symbol of resistance against Russian dominance in Poland.

Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt

• The 1830s were marked by severe economic hardship and a significant increase in population across Europe, leading to urban overcrowding and poverty.
• Rural migrants moved to cities in search of jobs, where they often lived in slums.
• Small producers faced tough competition from cheap, machine-made goods imported from England.
• Textile production in Europe was predominantly carried out in homes or small workshops and was only partially mechanized.
• Peasants in regions where aristocracy held power struggled under feudal dues and obligations.
• In 1848, food shortages and high unemployment in Paris sparked riots and forced Louis Philippe to flee, leading to the proclamation of a Republic and the establishment of national workshops.
• In 1845, weavers in Silesia revolted against contractors who reduced their wages despite increasing demands for finished textiles.
• The revolt led to violent confrontations where weavers vandalized property and looted supplies, resulting in a deadly clash with the army where eleven weavers were killed.

1848: The Revolution of the Liberals

• In 1848, parallel to social revolts, a revolution led by educated middle classes occurred in Europe, notably in France, where a republic was established with universal male suffrage.
• In Germany, Italy, Poland, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, middle-class professionals and businessmen demanded constitutionalism and national unification.
• The Frankfurt Parliament, formed by political associations in Germany, drafted a constitution for a unified German nation under a constitutional monarchy.
• Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia rejected the crown offered under the terms of the Frankfurt Parliament’s constitution, aligning with other monarchs against the elected assembly.
• The Frankfurt Parliament faced opposition from aristocracy and military, leading to its dissolution as it lost support from workers and artisans.
• Despite active participation in political activities, women were denied suffrage rights during the elections of the Assembly, only allowed as observers.
• Post-1848, autocratic monarchies in Central and Eastern Europe began reforms like abolishing serfdom and granting autonomy to Hungary, aiming to quell revolutionary fervor.

The Making of Germany and Italy

• After 1848, European nationalism shifted from democratic and revolutionary ideals to conservative uses for state power and political dominance.
• Nationalist sentiments in Germany and Italy were harnessed by conservatives to unify these regions into nation-states.
• In 1848, middle-class Germans attempted to unify the German confederation with a parliamentary government, but were suppressed by the monarchy, military, and Prussian Junkers (large landowners).
• Prussia, under Otto von Bismarck, led the movement for German unification, using the Prussian army and bureaucracy.
• Three wars (with Austria, Denmark, and France) led to Prussian victories and completed the unification process.
• On 18 January 1871, Prussian King William I was proclaimed German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles.
• The unification emphasized Prussian state power, modernizing Germany’s currency, banking, legal, and judicial systems.
• Prussian practices became models for the rest of Germany.

Italy Unified

• Italy had a long history of political fragmentation with Italians scattered over several dynastic states and the Habsburg Empire.
• In the mid-19th century, Italy was divided into seven states:
• Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house.
• The north was under Austrian Habsburgs.
• The center was ruled by the Pope.
• The southern regions were under Bourbon kings of Spain.
• The Italian language had many regional and local variations.
• Giuseppe Mazzini sought to create a unitary Italian Republic and formed Young Italy for this goal, but revolutionary uprisings in 1831 and 1848 failed.
• Sardinia-Piedmont, under King Victor Emmanuel II, took up the unification efforts.
• Chief Minister Cavour, who led the unification, was not a revolutionary or democrat and spoke French better than Italian.
• Cavour formed a diplomatic alliance with France, leading to the defeat of Austrian forces in 1859.
• Armed volunteers led by Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the unification efforts, marching into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, gaining support from local peasants.
• Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy in 1861.
• Many Italians, especially the illiterate peasant masses, were unaware of liberal-nationalist ideology and misunderstood “Italia” to mean Victor Emmanuel’s wife “La Talia.”

The Strange Case of Britain

• The nation-state model in Europe is often associated with Great Britain.
• The formation of the British nation-state was a gradual process, not resulting from sudden upheaval or revolution.
• Prior to the 18th century, the British Isles consisted of distinct ethnic groups: English, Welsh, Scots, and Irish, each with their own cultural and political traditions.
• As England grew in power and wealth, it extended its influence over the other nations in the British Isles.
• The English parliament, having gained power from the monarchy in 1688, played a key role in forming a nation-state centered on England.
• The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland created the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain,’ effectively imposing English influence on Scotland.
• The British parliament was dominated by English members, leading to the suppression of Scotland’s distinctive culture and political institutions.
• The Scottish Highlanders faced repression, were forbidden to speak Gaelic or wear national dress, and many were forcibly displaced.
• Ireland, divided between Catholics and Protestants, faced English-backed Protestant dominance and suppression of Catholic revolts.
• After a failed revolt in 1798 led by Wolfe Tone and the United Irishmen, Ireland was incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.
• A British identity was forged by promoting a dominant English culture, including symbols like the Union Jack, the national anthem “God Save Our Noble King,” and the English language, making older nations subordinate partners in the union.

Visualising the Nation

• Representing a nation visually in the 18th and 19th centuries was achieved by personifying the nation as a female figure.
• These female forms were allegories, giving the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form, rather than representing any real woman.
• During the French Revolution, female allegories symbolized ideals like Liberty, Justice, and the Republic.
• Liberty was symbolized by the red cap or broken chain.
• Justice was symbolized by a blindfolded woman with weighing scales.
• In 19th century France, the female allegory named Marianne symbolized the nation, incorporating attributes like the red cap, tricolour, and cockade.
• Statues of Marianne were placed in public squares, and her image appeared on coins and stamps to symbolize national unity.
• Germania became the allegory for the German nation, typically depicted wearing a crown of oak leaves, symbolizing heroism (as the German oak stands for heroism).