Pastoralists in the Modern World Class 9 History Chapter 5 Notes

Pastoralists in the Modern World Class 9 History Chapter 5 Notes are available here. These notes are prepared by the subject experts of our team.

Pastoralists in the Modern World Class 9 History Chapter 5 Notes

• Nomadic pastoralists move from place to place to earn a living.
• They can be seen with herds of goats, sheep, camels, and cattle in various parts of India.
• Their lifestyle, origin, and destination are often unknown to many.
• Pastoralists are rarely mentioned in history textbooks.
• Economic studies usually focus on agriculture and industry, seldom mentioning pastoralists.
• Pastoralists are often viewed as irrelevant to modern society.
• The chapter discusses the importance of pastoralism in India and Africa.
• It covers the impact of colonialism on pastoralists and their adaptation to modern society.
• The focus is initially on India and then shifts to Africa.

Pastoral Nomads and their Movements In the Mountains

• The Gujjar Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir are prominent herders of goats and sheep.
• Many migrated to the region in the 19th century seeking pastures.
• They established themselves over the decades and move annually between summer and winter grazing grounds.
• In winter, they stay in the low hills of the Siwalik range where dry scrub forests provide pasture.
• By the end of April, they begin their northern march to summer grazing grounds.
• Several households travel together, forming a “kafila.”
• They cross the Pir Panjal passes to enter the Kashmir valley.
• In summer, the mountainsides become lush and provide rich forage for their herds.
• By the end of September, they start their downward journey back to their winter base.
• The Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh practice seasonal movement similar to the Gujjar Bakarwals.
• They spend winter in the low hills of the Siwalik range, grazing their flocks in scrub forests.
• By April, they move north to Lahul and Spiti for the summer.
• When the snow melts and high passes are clear, many move to higher mountain meadows.
• In September, they begin their return journey.
• They stop in the villages of Lahul and Spiti to reap their summer harvest and sow their winter crop.
• They then descend to their winter grazing grounds in the Siwalik hills.
• This cycle repeats each April when they march to the summer meadows with their goats and sheep.
• In Garhwal and Kumaon, Gujjar cattle herders move to the dry forests of the bhabar in winter and high meadows (bugyals) in summer.
• Many Gujjars originally came from Jammu to the UP hills in the 19th century for better pastures.
• Cyclical movement between summer and winter pastures is common among Himalayan pastoral communities such as the Bhotiyas, Sherpas, and Kinnauris.
• These communities adjust to seasonal changes and use available pastures in different places.
• When pastures are exhausted or unusable, they move their herds to new areas.
• Continuous movement allows pastures to recover and prevents overuse.
• Bhabar: A dry forested area located below the foothills of Garhwal and Kumaun.
• Bugyal: Vast meadows found in the high mountains.

Pastoral Nomads and their Movements On the Plateaus, Plains and Deserts

• Pastoralists were found in mountains, plateaus, plains, and deserts of India.
• The Dhangars were an important pastoral community in Maharashtra.
• In the early 20th century, the Dhangar population in Maharashtra was about 467,000.
• Most Dhangars were shepherds, with some being blanket weavers and buffalo herders.
• Dhangar shepherds stayed in the central plateau of Maharashtra during the monsoon.
• The plateau was semi-arid, with low rainfall, poor soil, and covered with thorny scrub.
• Only dry crops like bajra could be grown on the plateau.
• During the monsoon, the plateau became a vast grazing ground for Dhangar flocks.
• By October, the Dhangars harvested bajra and moved west to the Konkan.
• The Konkan was an agricultural tract with high rainfall and rich soil.
• Konkani peasants welcomed the Dhangar shepherds after the kharif harvest.
• Dhangar flocks manured the fields and fed on the stubble, aiding the preparation for the rabi harvest.
• Konkani peasants provided rice supplies to the shepherds, which were scarce on the plateau.
• With the onset of the monsoon, Dhangars returned to the dry plateau, as their sheep could not tolerate wet conditions.
• In Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, the dry central plateau is inhabited by cattle, goat, and sheep herders.
• The Gollas herd cattle, while the Kurumas and Kurubas rear sheep and goats and sell woven blankets.
• These communities live near woods, cultivate small patches of land, engage in petty trades, and care for their herds.
• Seasonal movement is defined by the alternation of the monsoon and dry season, not cold and snow.
• During the dry season, they move to coastal tracts and leave when the rains come.
• Buffaloes prefer the swampy, wet conditions of the coastal areas during the monsoon, while other herds are moved to the dry plateau.
• The Banjaras are another well-known group of graziers found in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
• Banjaras travel long distances in search of good pastureland for their cattle, trading plough cattle and other goods for grain and fodder.
• The Raikas lived in the deserts of Rajasthan.
• The region experienced meager and uncertain rainfall.
• Harvests fluctuated annually, and vast stretches of land were unsuitable for crops.
• The Raikas combined cultivation with pastoralism.
• During the monsoons, they stayed in their home villages (Barmer, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, Bikaner) where pasture was available.
• By October, when grazing grounds were dry and exhausted, they moved in search of other pasture and water.
• They returned to their home villages during the next monsoon.
• The Maru (desert) Raikas herded camels, while another group reared sheep and goats.
• The life of pastoral groups was sustained by carefully considering various factors.
• They had to judge how long their herds could stay in one area.
• They needed to know where to find water and pasture.
• Calculating the timing of their movements was crucial.
• Ensuring safe passage through different territories was necessary.
• They had to establish relationships with farmers to graze herds in harvested fields and manure the soil.
• They combined activities such as cultivation, trade, and herding to make a living.

Colonial Rule and Pastoral Life

• Under colonial rule, the life of pastoralists changed dramatically.
• Grazing grounds shrank, movements were regulated, and revenue payments increased.
• Agricultural stock declined, and trades and crafts were adversely affected.
• The colonial state aimed to transform grazing lands into cultivated farms to increase land revenue.
• Expanding cultivation increased revenue collection and produced agricultural goods needed in England (jute, cotton, wheat).
• Colonial officials viewed uncultivated land as unproductive “waste land” needing cultivation.
• From the mid-19th century, Waste Land Rules were enacted to take over uncultivated lands and allocate them to select individuals.
• These individuals were granted concessions and encouraged to settle and cultivate the lands.
• Some were made headmen of villages in newly cleared areas.
• The lands taken over were often grazing tracts used by pastoralists, leading to a decline in pastures and problems for pastoralists.
• By the mid-nineteenth century, various Forest Acts were enacted in different provinces under colonial rule.
• Forests producing commercially valuable timber like deodar or sal were declared ‘Reserved’, barring pastoralist access.
• Other forests were classified as ‘Protected’, granting some customary grazing rights but with severe movement restrictions.
• Colonial officials believed grazing by pastoralists damaged forests by trampling saplings and consuming young shoots.
• This grazing was seen as preventing new trees from growing.
• The Forest Acts restricted pastoralists from entering many forests that previously provided forage for their cattle.
• Even in permitted areas, their movements were regulated, requiring entry permits.
• Entry and departure times were specified, and the duration of stay was limited.
• Pastoralists had to adhere strictly to the periods specified in their permits.
• They were compelled to move regardless of available forage, succulent grass, or ample undergrowth in the forest.
• Forest Department permits governed their movements, specifying legal periods for their presence.
• Violating these permits subjected pastoralists to fines.
• British officials distrusted nomadic people, including mobile craftsmen, traders, and pastoralists who moved seasonally for grazing.
• The colonial government preferred a settled population living in villages with fixed rights on specific fields.
• Settled populations were viewed as easier to identify and control, considered peaceable and law-abiding.
• Nomadic populations were labeled as potentially criminal.
• In 1871, the Colonial Government passed the Criminal Tribes Act, categorizing many nomadic communities as inherently criminal.
• Under this Act, these communities were restricted to notified village settlements and required permits to leave.
• Village police closely monitored these communities.
• The colonial government sought to increase revenue through various taxes including on land, canal water, salt, trade goods, and animals.
• Pastoralists were taxed on every animal grazed on pastures starting in the mid-19th century.
• The tax per head of cattle rose rapidly, and tax collection became more efficient.
• Between the 1850s and 1880s, the right to collect taxes was auctioned to contractors who aimed to maximize profits.
• By the 1880s, the government directly collected taxes from pastoralists.
• Each pastoralist received a pass specifying the number of cattle and the tax paid to enter grazing tracts.
• This system regulated pastoralist movements and ensured tax compliance.

How Did these Changes Affect the Lives of Pastoralists?

• Colonial measures resulted in a serious shortage of pastures as grazing lands were converted into cultivated fields.
• Reservation of forests restricted shepherds and cattle herders from freely pasturing their cattle.
• The decline in pastureland forced existing animal stock to graze intensively on remaining lands.
• Nomadic pastoral movements allowed natural vegetation restoration, but restrictions led to continuous use and decline in pasture quality.
• This shortage of forage resulted in the deterioration of animal stock.
• Underfed cattle suffered high mortality rates during scarcities and famines.

How Did the Pastoralists Cope with these Changes?

• Pastoralists responded to colonial changes by reducing herd sizes due to limited pasture.
• Some found new pastures when access to traditional grazing grounds was restricted.
• After 1947, Raikas (camel and sheep herders) could no longer graze in Sindh due to political boundaries between India and Pakistan.
• They migrated to Haryana where sheep graze on agricultural fields after harvests, providing needed manure.
• This adaptation helped them sustain their livelihood despite geopolitical changes.
• Richer pastoralists transitioned to settled life by purchasing land and becoming peasants or engaging in extensive trading.
• Poor pastoralists often borrowed money from moneylenders to survive.
• Financial struggles sometimes led to losing cattle and sheep, forcing them into labor as field workers or in small towns.
• Despite challenges, pastoralists have not only survived but their numbers have often increased in recent decades.
• They adapted by changing their movement directions, reducing herd sizes, and diversifying income sources.
• Many combined pastoral activities with other forms of income to adapt to modern changes.
• Ecologists view pastoralism as ecologically viable, especially in dry regions and mountains.
• Similar challenges were faced by pastoral communities worldwide, with new laws and settlement patterns necessitating changes.

Pastoralism in Africa

• Over half of the world’s pastoral population resides in Africa, with more than 22 million people dependent on pastoral activities for their livelihood.
• African pastoral communities include Bedouins, Berbers, Maasai, Somali, Boran, and Turkana.
• They primarily inhabit semi-arid grasslands or arid deserts where rainfed agriculture is challenging.
• Livelihoods involve raising cattle, camels, goats, sheep, and donkeys, selling products like milk, meat, animal skin, and wool.
• Some engage in trade, transport, agriculture alongside pastoralism, or various odd jobs to supplement income.
• Similar to pastoralists in India, African pastoralists have undergone significant changes during both colonial and post-colonial periods.
• The Maasai, a prominent pastoral community, primarily reside in East Africa with 300,000 in southern Kenya and 150,000 in Tanzania.
• New laws and regulations have deprived them of land and imposed movement restrictions.
• These changes have significantly impacted their lives during droughts and altered their social dynamics.

Where have the Grazing Lands Gone?

• In the late nineteenth century, the British colonial government in East Africa promoted the expansion of cultivation among local peasant communities.
• This expansion led to the conversion of pasturelands into cultivated fields.
• Before colonial times, the Maasai pastoralists held economic and political dominance over their agricultural neighbors.
• By the end of colonial rule, this situation had reversed, with the agricultural communities gaining economic and political prominence over the Maasai pastoralists.
• Significant grazing lands were converted into game reserves such as Maasai Mara and Samburu National Park in Kenya, and Serengeti Park in Tanzania.
• Pastoralists were prohibited from entering these reserves, unable to hunt or graze their herds there.
• These reserves often encompassed traditional grazing areas for Maasai herds.
• For example, Serengeti National Park was established over 14,760 square kilometers of Maasai grazing land.
• The Maasai experienced loss of their best grazing lands and water resources due to colonial actions.
• Confined to a small area, they faced pressure as continuous grazing led to pasture quality deterioration.
• Shortages of fodder became a persistent issue, affecting cattle feeding and livelihoods.

The Borders are Closed

• In the 19th century, African pastoralists had the freedom to move across vast areas in search of pastures, migrating when resources were depleted.
• Colonial governments from the late 19th century onwards began imposing restrictions on their mobility.
• Like the Maasai, other pastoral groups were confined to special reserves where their movement was restricted by boundaries.
• They required special permits to move their livestock outside these reserves, which were difficult to obtain and often led to trouble and harassment.
• Violations of these rules resulted in severe punishments for pastoralists.
• Colonial authorities restricted pastoralists from entering markets in white areas and often barred them from participating in trade altogether.
• White settlers and European colonists viewed pastoralists as dangerous and savage, aiming to minimize contact with them.
• Despite efforts to cut off contact, colonists relied on black labor for mining, building roads, and developing towns.
• Territorial boundaries and restrictions imposed by colonial rule significantly disrupted pastoralists’ lives, affecting both their pastoral activities and trade.
• Previously, pastoralists not only managed herds but also engaged in trade; under colonial restrictions, their trading activities continued but with severe limitations.

When Pastures Dry

• Drought significantly impacts pastoralists worldwide, leading to starvation and death of cattle when pastures dry up.
• Traditionally, pastoralists are nomadic, moving to find available forage during dry periods to survive and prevent crises.
• During the colonial period, the Maasai were restricted to fixed reserves, preventing them from seeking pastures elsewhere.
• Confined to semi-arid areas prone to drought, Maasai cattle suffered starvation and disease due to inability to move to better grazing lands.
• A 1930 enquiry reported the Maasai in Kenya owned 720,000 cattle, 820,000 sheep, and 171,000 donkeys, but severe drought in 1933-1934 caused over half of the cattle in the Maasai Reserve to perish.
• As grazing lands diminished, droughts’ adverse effects intensified, leading to a continuous decline in pastoralists’ livestock.

Not All were Equally Affected

• Maasai society before colonialism was structured with two distinct social groups: elders and warriors.
• Elders held authority and convened councils to govern the community and resolve disputes.
• Warriors, primarily young men, were responsible for defending the tribe and organizing cattle raids, which were crucial in a society where cattle represented wealth.
• Raiding and participation in wars were means through which young men earned recognition as warriors, demonstrating their bravery and prowess.
• Despite their autonomy in warfare and raiding, warriors were subordinate to the authority of the elders within Maasai society.
• British colonial administration of the Maasai introduced chiefs to oversee different sub-groups, centralizing authority.
• Measures were implemented to curb raiding and warfare among the Maasai, diminishing traditional practices.
• These interventions undermined the traditional authority structures of both elders and warriors within Maasai society.
• Chiefs appointed by the colonial government in Maasai society often accumulated wealth and gained regular income through their positions.
• They engaged in trade and lived in towns, while their families remained in villages to manage livestock.
• Chiefs were financially stable and could withstand adversities like war and drought by purchasing animals when needed.
• In contrast, poor pastoralists who relied solely on livestock often struggled during hard times, losing their assets in wars and famines.
• Many impoverished pastoralists had to seek work in towns, engaging in activities like charcoal burning or odd jobs.
• Social changes in Maasai society included disruption of traditional age-based distinctions between elders and warriors, and the emergence of a new divide between wealthy and poor pastoralists.